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Feather cloak

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Feather cloaks have been used by several cultures.

Hawaii

Princess Nāhiʻenaʻena in her cloak.
Feather cape
—Display at Keauhou, Hawaii
Feather Cloak of Princess Kekauluohi Kaʻahumanu

Elaborate feather cloaks called ʻahu ʻula[1][5] were created by early Hawaiians for the aliʻi (royalty).[6][7]

The scarlet and curve-beaked honeycreeper ʻiʻiwi (Vestiaria coccinea) was the main source of red feathers,[1] though the straight-beaked red honeycreeper ʻapapane (Himatione sanguinea) was also named,[8] and these were killed and skinned due to their abundance.[9][11] Patches of yellow feather were extracted from the mostly black ʻōʻō (Moho nobilis)[1] and now extinct mamo (Drepanis pacifica) using a catch and release philosophy due to their scarcity, to ensure future availability.[12] The mamo feathers were dark yellow, and ʻōʻō feathers pale yellow. The black feathers of the ʻōʻō were also used.[13] These[a] were some of the birds whose "feathers were taken to fashion the gods, the helmets, cloaks and lei".[8]

The feathered capes were items reserved for the aliʻi royals/chiefs, though they could be conferred to warriors of special distinction).[6] The feather helmet (mahiole[6]) was a royal item as well.[10]

Another strictly regal item was the kāhili, a symbolic "staff of state" or standard, consisting of pole with plumage attached to the top of it.[17][6][10][18] The Princess Nāhiʻenaʻena in her portrait (cf. fig. right) is depicted holding a kāhili while wearing a feather cloak.[19] She would typically wear a feather cloak with a feather coronet and pāʻū ('skirt'[20][b]),[21] but she also had a magnificent yellow feather skirt made for her, which featured in her funerary services.[21][22][23]

Other famous examples include:

Hawaiian mythology

In the tradition regarding the hero ʻAukelenuiaʻīkū, of which there are nine version, the hero's grandmother Moʻoinanea who the matriarch of the divine lizards (moʻo akua, or simply moʻo) gives him her severed tail, transformed into a cape that turns enemies into ashes (kapa lehu, i.e. tapa), and sends him off on a quest to woo his destined wife, Nāmaka. Nāmaka will receive him by attacking, and she will be immune to the cape's powers. She is also a granddaughter or a descendant of the lizard, and has been given the lizard's , battle pāʻū and kāhili, also conferred with power to destroy enemy into ashes.[24] In one retelling, Moʻoinanea (Ka-moʻo-inanea) gives her grandson ʻAukele her "feather skirt" and kāhili which "by shaking.. can reduce his enemies to ashes".[25][26]

A commentator has argued that feather garment of Nāhiʻenaʻena was regarded as imbued with the apotropaic "powers of a woman's genitals", reminiscent of the mythic pāʻū which Hiʻiaka was given by Pele.[28]

Brazil

Main article: Tupinambà cape

Feather cloaks were known to the coastal Tupi people, notably the Tupinambá. The cloaks called gûaraabuku were dressed by the paîé (Tupian shamans) during rituals. They were made from the red plumage of gûará (Eudocimus ruber) and had a hood at the top, which could cover the entire head, shoulders and thighs up to the buttocks.

Māori

In Māori culture feathers are a sign of chiefly rank,[29] and the kahu huruhuru (feather cloak),[30] is still used as sign of rank or respect.[31][32]

Germanic

Bird-hamir or feather cloaks that enable the wearers to take the form of, or become, birds are widespread in Germanic mythology and legend. The term hamir can be translated as various terms such as skin, cloak, costume, coat or form.[33][34][35][36][37]

Gods and jötnar

The Gotlandic image stone Stora Hammars III is believed to depict Odin in the form of an eagle (note the eagle's beard), Gunnlöð holding the mead of poetry, and Suttungr.

In Norse mythology, goddesses Freyja and Frigg each own a feather cloak or feather costume that imparts the ability of flight.[37][38] Freyja is not attested as using the cloak herself,[39] however she lent her fjaðrhamr ("feather cloak") to Loki so he could fly to Jötunheimr after Þórr's hammer went missing in Þrymskviða, and to rescue Iðunn from the jötunn Þjazi in Skáldskaparmál who had abducted the goddess while in an arnarhamr ("eagle shape").[34][40][44] Loki also uses Frigg's feather cloak to journey to Geirröðargarða, referred to here as a valshamr ("falcon-feathered cloak").[47]

Óðinn is described as being able to change his shape into that of animals, as attested in the Ynglinga saga.[48][49] Furthermore, in the story of the Mead of Poetry from Skáldskaparmál, he does not explicitly require a physical item to assume an arnarhamr ("eagle-form") to flee with the mead, in contrast to the jötunn Suttung, who must put on his (arnarhamr) in order to pursue him.[50][51]

Völsunga saga

Wayland's smithy in the centre, Niðhad's daughter to the left, and Niðhad's dead sons hidden to the right of the smithy. Between the girl and the smithy, Wayland can be seen in a fjaðrhamr flying away. From the Ardre image stone VIII.

In the Völsunga saga, the wife of King Rerir is unable to conceive a child and so the couple prays to Odin and Frigg for help. Hearing this, Frigg then sends one of her maids wearing a krákuhamr (crow-cloak) to the king with a magic apple that, when eaten, made the queen pregnant with her son Völsung.[52][53][54]

Wayland

The master smith Wayland (Old Norse: Völundr) uses some sort of device to fly away and escape from King Niðhad after he is hamstrung, as described in the Eddic lay Völundarkviða.[55][56] The lay has Völundr saying he has regained his "webbed feet" which soldiers had taken away from him, and with it he is able to soar into air. This is explained as a circumlocution for him recovering a magical artifact (perhaps a ring), which allows him to transform into a swan or such waterfowl with webbed feet.[55][56] An alternate interpretation is that the text here should not be construed as "feet" but "wings" ("feather coat or artificial wings"[57]), which gave him ability to fly away.[59][60][c]

The second "wing" scenario coincides with the version of the story given in Þiðreks saga, where Völundr's brother Egill shot birds and collected plumage for him, providing him with the raw material for crafting a set of wings,[55] and this latter story is corroborated also corroborated on depictions on the panels of the 8th-century whale-bone Franks Casket.[55][58][62]

In the Þiðreks saga Wayland (here Old Norse: Velent)'s device is referred to as "wings" or "a wing" (Old Norse: flygill, a term borrowed from the German Flügel[63]) but is described as resembling a fjaðrhamr, supposedly flayed from a griffin, or vulture, or an ostrich.[d][e][f][67][69] Modern commentators suggest that the Low German source[72] originally just meant "wings", but the Norse translators took license to interpret it as being just like a "feather cloak".[64][62] In the saga version, Velent not only requested his brother Egill to obtain the plumage material[73] (as aforementioned) but also asks Egill to wear the wings first to perform a test flight.[67][62] Afterwards Velent himself escapes with the wings, and instructs Egil to shoot him, but aiming for his blood sack prop to fake his death.[67]

Furthermore, the three swan-maidens, also described as valkyrjur, in the prose prologue of Völundarkviða own álftarhamir ("swan cloaks" or "swan garments") which give the wearer the form of a swan.[74][75][76] This bears similarity to the account of the eight valkyrjur with hamir in Helreið Brynhildar.[77][74]

Bladud's wings

The legendary king Bladud of the Celtic Britons fashioned himself a pair of wings to fly with, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.[78] This winged contraption is rendered as a "fjaðrhamr" in the Old Norse translation Breta sögur,[79][36] here meant strictly as a flying suit, not a means of transformation into bird.[36]

Bladud's wings are also rendered into Middle English as "Middle English: feðer-home", cognate with Old Norse: fjaðrhamr, in Layamon's Brut version of Geoffrey's History.[80]

Other

There are bird-people depicted on the Oseberg tapestry fragments, which may be some personage or deity wearing winged cloaks, but it is difficult to identify the figures or even ascertain gender.[81]

Celtic

King Bladud of Britain created artificial wings to enable flight according to Galfridian sources, conceived of as "feather skin" in Old Norse and Middle English versions (as already discussed above in § Bladud's wings ).

Poet's cloak

In Ireland, the elite class of poets known as the filid wore a feathered cloak, the tuigen, according to Sanas Cormaic ("Cormac's glossary"). Although the term may merey refer to a "precious" sort of toga, as Cormac glosses in Latin, it can also signify tuige 'covering ' tuige 'of birds', and goes on to describe the composition of this garment in minute detail.[82][83][g]

Since it is attested in the Lebor na Cert ("Book of Rights") that the rights of the Kings of Cashel rested with the chief poet of Ireland, together with his taiden,[85][86] Cormac, being the king of Cashel, would have had firsthand knowledge.

Cormac's glossary goes on to describe the tuigen thus: "for it is of skins (croiccenn, dat. chroicnib[87]) of birds white and many-coloured that the poets' toga is made from their girdle downwards, and of mallards' necks and of their crests from the girdle upwards to their neck".[83]

The tuigen is also described in the Immacallam in dá Thuarad ("The Colloquy of the two Sages").

In the Konungs skuggsjá, we can read a description of these poets in the chapter dealing with Irish marvels (XI):

There is still another matter, that about the men who are called “gelts,” which must seem wonderful. Men appear to become gelts in this way: when hostile forces meet and are drawn up in two lines and both set up a terrifying battle-cry, it happens that timid and youthful men who have never been in the host before are sometimes seized with such fear and terror that they lose their wits and run away from the rest into the forest, where they seek food like beasts and shun the meeting of men like wild animals. It is also told that if these people live in the woods for twenty winters in this way, feathers will grow upon their bodies as on birds; these serve to protect them from frost and cold, but they have no large feathers to use in flight as birds have. But so great is their fleetness said to be that it is not possible for other men or even for greyhounds to come near them; for those men can dash up into a tree almost as swiftly as apes or squirrels.[88]

Regarding the above description of the "Gelts" sprouting feathers, compare Buile Shuibhne where Suibhne Gelt seems to transform into a feathered form.

This concept is adapted to the Greek mythology ; Mercury, god of medicine, wears a "bird covering" or "feather mantle" rather than talaria (usually conceived of as feathered slippers) in medieval Irish versions of the Greco-Roman classics, such as the Aeneid.[89]

See also

  • Hagoromo, the feathered stole of Japanese-Buddhist mythology.

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ the endangered (or already extinct) ' ō'ū with its green plumage were used,[8] though rarely.[14] Davida Malo (19th cent.) includes the amakihi[6] referring to yellow-green birds of several species.
  2. ^ Incidentally, a tertiary meaning of pāʻū is that it signifies the red feathers around the yellow in an ornamental feather bundle, called ʻuo].[20]
  3. ^ There is yet a third but a clear minority view that Völundr somehow regained his ability as shapeshifter to transform at will without any device.[61]
  4. ^ Old Norse: "fleginn af grip eða af gambr eða af þeim fugl er struz heitir".
  5. ^ The translation "griffin" here is backed by German sources, such as Franz Rolf Schröder block-quoted in English translation,[64] and Alfred Becker.[62] But "griffin" is lacking in Haymes's English translation: the terms gripr and gambr (gammr) are both glossed as 'vulture' in Cleasby-Vigfusson,[65][66] which explains why Haymes's translation collapses three birds into two: "winged haunch of a vulture, or of a bird called ostrich". But Cleasby-Vigfusson admits gripr derives from German griff [meaning 'griffin'] and only cites this one instance in the Þiðreks saga;[65] the word is clearly a hapax legomenon.[62]
  6. ^ The fjaðrhamr has also been rendered as "feather haunch" or "winged haunch",[67] even though the literal translation would be "feather skin".[68][64]
  7. ^ Atkinson (1901) did register some doubt whether this was a genuine bird-skin garment from the very beginning which was thus name aptly, or an ex post facto explanation later developed, based on the name (or the conjectural etymology thereof.[84] Atkinson's reservation is also noted in the eDIL.[82]

References

  1. ^ a b c Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel H. Elbert (2003) [1986]. "lookup of ʻahu ʻula". on Hawaiian Dictionary. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii. Retrieved 4 April 2010.; Kepau's Combined Hawaiian Dictionary, s.v. "[ttps://trussel2.com/HAW/p009.pdf ʻahu ʻula]"
  2. ^ Holt 1985, p. 169.
  3. ^ Kepau's Combined Hawaiian Dictionary, s.v. "[ttps://trussel2.com/HAW/p009.pdf ʻahunāliʻi]"
  4. ^ Kepau's Combined Hawaiian Dictionary, s.v. "[ttps://trussel2.com/HAW/p008.pdf ʻahu lāʻī]"
  5. ^ Holt gives ʻahu ʻula 'feather cape' and ʻahuliʻī 'feather cloak',[2] but the latter perhaps meant as ʻahunāliʻi since it signifies "ʻahu of the āliʻi", though glossed in CHD as 'a tapa for chiefs, colored with candlenut and noni and striped red'.[3] Cf. also ʻahu lāʻī signifying ti-leaf cloak.[4]
  6. ^ a b c d e f Malo, David (1903). Hawaiian Antiquities: (Moolelo Hawaii). Translated by Emerson, Nathaniel Bright. Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette. pp. 63, 106–107. ISBN 9781785702181.
  7. ^ "Na Hulu AliʻI: Royal Feathers ~ An Exhibition Of Rare Hawaiian Featherwork". Hawaii Visitors & Convention Bureau. 2 September 2006. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  8. ^ a b c Capt. Charles Clerke's description of birds whose feathers were used (from Capt. Cooke's voyage) apud Holt 1985, p. 21: "ʻiʻiwi.. main source of red feathers", etc., as described by
  9. ^ Hiroa 1944, pp. 9–10.
  10. ^ a b c Pratt, H. Douglas (2005). The Hawaiian Honeycreepers: Drepanidinae. OUP Oxford. pp. 279–280. ISBN 9780198546535.
  11. ^ The feather items collected by Captain Cooke's voyagers were "almost invariably those of the ʻiʻiwi", but one exception employed patches of feathered skin, some belonging to ʻapapane.[10]
  12. ^ Hiroa 1944, p. 10.
  13. ^ But not the dull black feathers of the mamo.(Hiroa 1944, pp. 1, 10).
  14. ^ Hiroa 1944, p. 1.
  15. ^ Sinclair 1976, repr. Sinclair 1995, p. 67
  16. ^ Sinclair 1995, p. 120.
  17. ^ Although the kāhili was strictly for the aliʻi there was a kāhili bearer appointed to hold it,[15], and it was waved over the royal during sleep, as a fly-brush[6] or fly-whisk. Contrary to the one-handed version in the princess's painting, the multi-colored kāhili held by her bearer may be 30 feet long.[16]
  18. ^ Holt 1985, p. 68.
  19. ^ Sinclair 1976, repr. Sinclair 1995, p. xiii, "she firmly holds a kāhili"
  20. ^ a b Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel H. Elbert (2003) [1986]. "lookup of pā.ʻū". on Hawaiian Dictionary. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii.; Kepau's Combined Hawaiian Dictionary, s.v. "pā.ʻū"
  21. ^ a b Sinclair 1995, p. 34.
  22. ^ Ron Staton (9 June 2003). "Historic feather garment to be displayed". The Honolulu Advertiser.
  23. ^ Burl Burlingame (6 May 2003). "Rare pa'u pageantry The grand cloak is made of hundreds of thousands of feathers from the 'oo and mamo birds". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved 29 November 2001.
  24. ^ a b Brown, Marie Alohalani (2022). Ka Po‘e Mo‘o Akua: Hawaiian Reptilian Water Deities. University of Hawaii Press. p. 122. ISBN 9780824891091.
  25. ^ Version of Haleʻole, S. N. (1863), reprinted in: Beckwith, Martha Warren (1919). "The Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai". Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1911–1912. 33: 636–638.
  26. ^ Beckwith, Martha Warren (1982) [1940]. Hawaiian Mythology. University of Hawaii Press. p. 491. ISBN 9780824805142.
  27. ^ Charlot, John (June 1991). "The Feather Skirt of Nāhiʻenaʻena: an Innovation in Postcontact Hawaiian Art". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 100 (2): 137. JSTOR 20706388.
  28. ^ Charlot (1991), p. 137,[27] cited by Brown.[24]
  29. ^ Te Ara
  30. ^ Te Ara
  31. ^ "Elton John gifted rare Maori cloak". The New Zealand Herald. 7 December 2007. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  32. ^ Kay, Martin (9 April 2009). "Clark gets cloak for a queen". The Dominion Post. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  33. ^ a b Orchard tr. 2011, pp. 96–101, 304, Thrymskvida: The song of Thrym, Notes: Thrymskvida: The song of Thrym.
  34. ^ a b Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (2002) [1993]. The lost beliefs of northern Europe. London: Routledge. p. 109. ISBN 9781134944682.
  35. ^ a b Vigfússon 1883, p. 176, Þryms-kviða; or, The Lay of Thrym.
  36. ^ a b c d McKinnel, John (2014a) [2000]. "Chapter 8. Myth as Therapy: The Function of Þrymskviða". In Kick, Donata; Shafer, John D. (eds.). Essays on Eddic Poetry. University of Toronto Press. pp. 201 and note 13. ISBN 9781442615885. 13 See e.g. Breta sögur, in Hauksbók.. Eiríkur Jónsson and Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1892-6), 231-302 (p. 248); this was translated from the Latin of Geoffrey of Monmouth.. Geoffrey simply refers at this point to the wings which King Bladud orders... Originally —— (2000). "Myth as Therapy: The Function of Þrymskviða". Medium Ævum. 69 (1): 1–20. doi:10.2307/43631487. JSTOR 43631487.
  37. ^ a b Näsström, Britt-Mari [in Swedish] (1995). Freyja, the Great Goddess of the North. Department of History of Religions, University of Lund. p. 110. ISBN 9789122016946.
  38. ^ a b c Morris, Katherine S. (1991). Sorceress Or Witch?: The Image of Gender in Medieval Iceland and Northern Europe. University Press of America. p. 201. ISBN 9780819182562. Freyja possessed a feather or falcon shape, ON valshamr (Skáldskaparmál 1). Frigg also owned such a costume, and Loki borrowed it (Skáldskaparmál 18)
  39. ^ a b Egeler, Matthias (2013). Celtic Influences in Germanic Religion: A Survey. Münchner nordistische Studien 15. Herbert Utz Verlag. pp. 393–466. ISBN 9783831642267.
  40. ^ Þrymskviða 3,6; 5,2; 9,2.[36] Finnur Jónsson ed. (1905),1905 Vigfusson & Powell ed. with prose tr. (1883)[35] Orchard tr. (2011)[33]
  41. ^ Sveinbjörn Egilsson ed. 1848, p. 208ff, Bragaræður 56.
  42. ^ Byock tr. 2005.
  43. ^ Faulkes tr. 2005, Skáldskaparmál 56.
  44. ^ Snorra Edda, Skaldskaparmál G1, G56.[38][39] Text, Copenhagen edition (1848);[41] Translations by Byock (2005),[42] and by Faulkes (1995)[43].
  45. ^ Faulkes tr. 2005, Skáldskaparmál 18 & 19.
  46. ^ Thorpe 1851, pp. 52–53.
  47. ^ Skaldskaparmál G18.[38] Translations by Faulkes (1995)[45] and Thorpe (1851).[46]
  48. ^ Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (2013) [1968]. The Road to Hel: a study of the conception of the dead in Old Norse literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 9781107632349.; originally New York: Greenwood Press, 1968
  49. ^ Grimstad 1983 discusses the transformation of gods "donning a feather coat", and in the attached footnoted ((n18, p. 206) with an association with Oðinn's ability to transform into creatures in the Ynglinga saga.
  50. ^ Egeler 2009, p. 443.
  51. ^ Sveinbjörn Egilsson ed. 1848, p. 218ff, Bragaræður 58.
  52. ^ Egeler 2009, pp. 442, 444.
  53. ^ "Völsunga saga – heimskringla.no". heimskringla.no. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  54. ^ Crawford 2017, pp. 2–3.
  55. ^ a b c d "Lay of Volund". The Poetic Edda. Translated by Larrington, Carolyne. OUP Oxford. 2014. pp. 99–111 and note to str. 29. ISBN 9780191662942.: St, 29: "'Lucky..' said Volund 'that I can use my webbed feet'/of which Nidud's warriors deprived me!'/Laughing, Volund rose into air..".
  56. ^ a b In Grimstad 1983, p. 191, it is the "second interpretation" which postulates that a transformation ring is meant; it is further explained that the ring could have belonged to the swan-maiden wife of Volund, and the ring endowed its wearer with an ability of transformation into a swan, etc. The authorities on this point of view listed (n20) are Richard Constant Boer (1907), Völundarkviða" Arkiv för nordisk filologi 23 (Ny följd. 19): 139–140, Ferdinand Detter (1886) "Bemerkungen zu den Eddaliedern", Arkiv för nordisk filologi 3: 309–319, Halldór Halldórsson (1960) " Hringtöfrar í íslenzkum orðtökum” Íslenzk tunga 2: 18–20 Deutsche Heldensagen, pp. 10–15, Alois Wolf (München, 1965 ) "Gestaltungskerne und Gestaltungsweisen in der altgermanischen Heldendichtung", p. 84.
  57. ^ Grimstad 1983, p. 191.
  58. ^ a b c McKinnel, John (2014b) [2000]. "Chapter 9. Völunðarkvida: Origins and Interpretation". In Kick, Donata; Shafer, John D. (eds.). Essays on Eddic Poetry. University of Toronto Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN 9781442615885.
  59. ^ Jan de Vries [1952] pp. 196–197 contended that the plural word fitjar in the phrase à fitjum need not be translated "webbed feet" but can be interpreted to mean "wings", cognate with Old Saxon federac and Middle Low German vittek, though McKinnel considers this problematic.[58]
  60. ^ Grimstad 1983, p. 191 places "wings" vs. "ring" as the two major schools of thought on the interpretation of this phrase.[57] As exponents of the "feather coat or a pair of artificial wings" view names (n19) Georg Baesecke (1937), A. G. van Hamel (1929) "On Völundarkviða" Arkiv för nordisk filologi 45: 161–175, Hellmut Rosenfeld (1955) and Philip Webster Souers (1943) as anticipating Jan de Vries (1952).
  61. ^ Grimstad 1983, p. 192
  62. ^ a b c d e Becker, Alfred (2021). Franks Casket: Das Runenkästchen von Auzon: Magie in Bildern, Runen und Zahlen (in German). Frank & Timme GmbH. p. 262. ISBN 9783732907380. Cf. the translation of this book, Becker (2023) The King's Gift Box: The Runic Casket of Auzon ISBN 979-8865378730 (in English)
  63. ^ Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "flygill"
  64. ^ a b c Shröder, Franz Rolf (1977) "Der Name Wieland", BzN, new ser. 4:53–62, quoted by Harris 2005, p. 103.[71]
  65. ^ a b Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "gripr(2)" "m. [Germ. griff], a vulture. Þiðr. 92
  66. ^ Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "gammr"
  67. ^ a b c d Haymes tr. 1988, pp. 53–54, Chapter 77.
  68. ^ Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "hamr"
  69. ^ Unger tr. 1853, pp. 92–94, Chapter 77.
  70. ^ McKinnel, John (2016). "Chapter 19. Eddic poetry in Anglo-Scandinavian northern England". In Graham-Campbell, James; Hall, Richard; Jesch, Judith; Parsons, David N. (eds.). Vikings and the Danelaw. Oxbow Books. p. 334. ISBN 9781785704550.
  71. ^ a b Harris, Joseph (2005) [1985]. "Eddic Poetry". In Clover, Carol J.; Lindow, John (eds.). Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide. University of Toronto Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780802038234.
  72. ^ Þiðreks saga is considered "foreign" by McKinnel[70] since it was translated from a Low German source.[58][71]
  73. ^ McKinnel, John (2002). "Chapter 18. The Context of Völunarkviða". In Acker, Paul; Larrington, Carolyne (eds.). The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology. Routeledge. p. 201. ISBN 9780815316602.
  74. ^ a b Egeler 2009, pp. 441–442.
  75. ^ Finnur Jónsson ed. 1905, p. 147ff, Völundarkviða.
  76. ^ Orchard tr. 2011, Völundarkvida: The song of Völund.
  77. ^ Benoit, Jérémie (1989). "Le Cygne et la Valkyrie. Dévaluation d'un mythe". Romantisme (in French). 19 (64): 69–84. doi:10.3406/roman.1989.5588.
  78. ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth (1904) Histories of the Kings of Britain, II.iv Bladud foundeth Bath. Translated by Sebastian Evans. p. 44
  79. ^ Jónsson & 1892-1896.
  80. ^ Prior, Richard Chandler Alexander (1860). "Thor of Asgard". Ancient Danish Ballads: trans by R C Alexander Prior. London: Williams and Norgate. pp. 3–10 (note to str. 3).
  81. ^ Mannering, Ulla (2016). Iconic Costumes: Scandinavian Late Iron Age Costume Iconography. Oxbow Books. pp. 6–27. ISBN 9781785702181.
  82. ^ a b eDIL s.v. "tuigen, tugan": var. "stuigen"
  83. ^ a b O'Donovan, John tr., annot. Stokes, Whitley ed., notes, eds. (1868). "tugen". Sanas Chormaic [Cormac's glossary]. Calcutta: O.T. Cutter. p. 160.
  84. ^ a b Atkinson, Robert, ed. (1901). "tugain". Ancient laws of Ireland: Glossary. Vol. VI. H.M. Stationery Office. p. 756. though one might be curious as to which was the prius here, the word or its explanation
  85. ^ Joyce, Patrick Weston (1903). A Social History of Ancient Ireland: Treating of the Government, Military System, and Law. Longmans, Green, and Company. p. 447. ISBN 9783732907380.
  86. ^ O'Donovan, John, ed. (1847). Leabhar na g-ceart [The Book of Rights]. Dublin: Celtic Society. pp. 32–33.:
  87. ^ eDIL s.v. "croiccenn"
  88. ^ "The King's Mirror (Speculum Regale--Konungs Skuggsjá) tr. from the old Norwegian, by Anonymous--A Project Gutenberg eBook". www.gutenberg.org.
  89. ^ Miles, Brent (2011). Heroic Saga and Classical Epic in Medieval Ireland. Cambridge: DS Brewer. pp. 75–76. ISBN 1843842645. ISSN 0261-9865.

Bibliography

Primary

Secondary

(Hawaiian material)
(European material)
  • Egeler, Matthias (2009). "Keltisch-mediterrane Perspektiven auf die altnordischen Walkürenvorstellungen". In Heizmann, Wilhelm; Böldl, Klaus; Beck, Heinrich (eds.). Analecta Septentrionalia: Beiträge zur nordgermanischen Kultur- und Literaturgeschichte. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 65 (in German). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 393–466. ISBN 9783110218701.
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