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== Fish liver ==
== Fish liver ==
Some fish livers are valued as food, especially the [[Common stingray|stingray]] liver. It is used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dods|first1=Margaret|title=The Cook and Housewife's Manual ... The fifth edition, revised and enlarged, etc|date=1837|publisher=Oliver & Boyd, Eninburgh|page=269|edition=Sixth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mnuUWR5uNpUC&q=skate+liver+on+toast&pg=PA269|access-date=13 February 2018}}</ref> as well as the ''beignets de foie de raie'' and ''foie de raie en croute'' in [[French cuisine]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schwabe|first1=Calvin W.|title=Unmentionable Cuisine|year=1979|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0813911625|page=315|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC&q=poached+skate+liver&pg=PA315|access-date=12 February 2018}}</ref> Cod liver (usually tinned in its oil and served seasoned) is a popular spread for bread or toast in several European countries. In Russia, it is served with potatoes. [[Cod liver oil]] is commonly used as a [[dietary supplement]]. Liver of [[burbot]] is eaten in Finland: it is common for fish vendors and supermarket fish aisles to sell these fish with liver and roe sacks still attached. These parts are often eaten boiled or added to burbot soup. Burbot and its liver are a traditional winter food.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.meillakotona.fi/artikkelit/kalakoulu-made|title = Kalakoulu: Made|date = 28 February 2011}}</ref>
Some fish livers are valued as food, especially the [[Common stingray|stingray]] liver. It is used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dods|first1=Margaret|title=The Cook and Housewife's Manual ... The fifth edition, revised and enlarged, etc|date=1837|publisher=Oliver & Boyd, Eninburgh|page=269|edition=Sixth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mnuUWR5uNpUC&q=skate+liver+on+toast&pg=PA269|access-date=13 February 2018}}</ref> as well as the ''beignets de foie de raie'' and ''foie de raie en croute'' in [[French cuisine]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schwabe|first1=Calvin W.|title=Unmentionable Cuisine|year=1979|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0813911625|page=315|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC&q=poached+skate+liver&pg=PA315|access-date=12 February 2018}}</ref> Cod liver (usually tinned in its oil and served seasoned) is a popular spread for bread or toast in several European countries. In Russia, it is served with potatoes. [[Cod liver oil]] is commonly used as a [[dietary supplement]]. Liver of [[burbot]] is eaten in Finland: it is common for fish vendors and supermarket fish aisles to sell these fish with liver and roe sacks still attached. These parts are often eaten boiled or added to burbot soup. Burbot and its liver are a traditional winter food.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.meillakotona.fi/artikkelit/kalakoulu-made|title = Kalakoulu: Made|date = 28 February 2011}}</ref>

== Human livers ==
Eating human livers of enemies was a part of many culture across the world and it was believed where the courage and soul of a person resided. The pagan Arab [[Hind bint Utbah]] ate the liver of Hamza.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orlandi |first1=Riccardo |last2=Cianci |first2=Nicole |last3=Invernizzi |first3=Pietro |last4=Cesana |first4=Giancarlo  |date=August 2018 |title="I Miss My Liver." Nonmedical Sources in the History of Hepatocentrism |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326872161 |journal=Hepatology Communications |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=982–989 |doi=10.1002/hep4.1224 |pmc=6078213 |pmid=30094408}}</ref>

French Catholics ate livers of Huguenots at the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] while French Protestant Huguenots cooked and ate the relics (bodily remains) of Catholic saints.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=Penny |title=Crowd Actions in Britain and France from the Middle Ages to the Modern World |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1137316516 |editor-last=Davis |editor-first=Michael T. |edition=illustrated |page= |chapter=22 Riot and Religion in Sixteenth-Century France |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sahCgAAQBAJ&dq=eat+huguenot+livers&pg=PT53}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Inayatullah |first1=Naeem |url=https://www.academia.edu/39023238/International_Relations_and_the_Problem_of_Difference |title=International Relations and the Problem of Difference |last2=Blaney |first2=David L.    |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1135940746 |page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Treasure |first=Geoffrey  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUUfAAAAQBAJ&dq=eat+huguenot+livers&pg=PA161 |title=The Huguenots |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300196191 |location= |page=161}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Coudert |first=Allison P. |title=Crime and Punishment in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Age: Mental-Historical Investigations of Basic Human Problems and Social Responses |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3110294583 |editor1-last=Classen |editor1-first=Albrecht |edition=illustrated |series=Fundamentals of Medieval and Early Modern Culture |volume=11 |page=251 |chapter=22 The Ultimate Crime: Cannibalism in Early Modern Minds and Imaginations |editor2-last=Scarborough |editor2-first=Connie |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxmTcMMfLpIC&dq=eat+huguenot+livers&pg=PA521}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Appelbaum |first=Robert  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CYyNGLOAgCYC&dq=eat+huguenot+livers&pg=PA262 |title=Aguecheek's Beef, Belch's Hiccup, and Other Gastronomic Interjections: Literature, Culture, and Food Among the Early Moderns |date=2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226021287 |edition=illustrated, reprint |series=The Chicago Ser. on Sexuality, History, and Society Series |page=262}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Gerhild Scholz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdlt3tEZ9i4C&dq=eat+huguenot+livers&pg=PA184 |title=Defining Dominion: The Discourses of Magic and Witchcraft in Early Modern France and Germany |date=1995 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0472086197 |edition=illustrated, reprint |series=Studies in medieval and early modern civilization |page=184}}</ref>

[[Jean de Léry]] mentioned in his "History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil" that Italians also ate the livers of each other during mob violence at the same time as the French.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wandel |first=Lee Palmer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76zYWBRZxKsC&dq=%22their+bloodthirst+except+by+eating+their+livers%22&pg=PA61 |title=The Reformation: Towards a New History |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521889490 |edition=illustrated |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lévi-Strauss |first=Claude |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/516797045/Claude-Levi-Strauss-Emmanuel-Desveaux-Editor-From-Montaigne-to-Montaigne-Univ-of-Minnesota-Press-2019 |title=From Montaigne to Montaigne |date=2019 |publisher=U of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1452962870 |editor-last=Désveaux |editor-first=Emmanuel |page=72}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sadlier |first=Darlene J. |url=https://epdf.pub/brazil-imagined-1500-to-the-present-william-and-bettye-nowlin-series-in-art-hist.html |title=Brazil Imagined: 1500 to the Present |date=2010 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292774735 |series=The William and Bettye Nowlin Series in Art, History, and Culture of the Western Hemisphere |page=42 |doi=10.7560/718562}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Amerindians through The Age of Globalization |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Latin America |publisher=Facts On File, Inc. |url=https://epdf.tips/encyclopedia-of-latin-america-4-volumes-facts-on-file-library-of-world-history.html  |date=2010  |editor1-last=Francis  |editor1-first=J. Michael  |page=53 |isbn=978-1-4381-2964-8 |editor2-last=Leonard  |editor2-first=Thomas M.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jacoby |first=Russell  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EA7Va7XHiSEC&dq=%22their+bloodthirst+except+by+eating+their+livers%22&pg=PA15  |title=Bloodlust: On the Roots of Violence from Cain and Abel to the Present |date=2011 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1439117569 |page=15 |quote=If it comes to the brutal action of really as one says chewing and devouring human flesh, have we not found people in these regions over here, even among those who bear the name of Christian … who, not content with having cruelly put to death their enemies, have been unable to slake their bloodthirst except by eating their livers and hearts?}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Juster |first=Susan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GerPCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22their+bloodthirst+except+by+eating+their+livers%22&pg=PA40 |title=Sacred Violence in Early America |date=2016 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0812248135 |edition=illustrated |series=Early American Studies |page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rawson |first=Claude Julien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gpKmpiGzdnEC&dq=%22their+bloodthirst+except+by+eating+their+livers%22&pg=PA40 |title=God, Gulliver, and Genocide: Barbarism and the European Imagination, 1492-1945 |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0199257507 |edition=illustrated, reprint |page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Scanlan |first=Thomas  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtbkZIy2ilAC&dq=%22their+bloodthirst+except+by+eating+their+livers%22&pg=PA43 |title=Colonial Writing and the New World, 1583-1671: Allegories of Desire |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521643058 |edition=illustrated |page=43}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ruppel |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=um5MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22their+bloodthirst+except+by+eating+their+livers%22 |title=Images of Discovery: Otherness and the New World in the 16th Century |date=1992 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Duker |first=Adam Asher |date=21 Mar 2014 |title=The Protestant Israelites of Sancerre: Jean de Léry and the Confessional Demarcation of Cannibalism |journal=Journal of Early Modern History |publisher=Brill |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=255–286 |doi=10.1163/15700658-12342414 |issn=1570-0658 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Lee |first=Tonhi |date=2022 |title=Migration and Mimesis in the English Renaissance, 1492-1668 |type=Doctor of Philosophy (English Language and Literature) |page=98 |publisher=University of Michigan |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/174636/tonhilee_1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=LESIUK-CUMMINGS |first=ANNA |date=June 2014 |title=SELF-IDENTITY AND ALTERITY IN RENAISSANCE HUMANISM BETWEEN ELITE AND POPULAR DISCOURSES |type=Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=Graduate School of the University of Oregon |url=https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/18340/LesiukCummings_oregon_0171A_10945.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref>

Japanese ate livers of Americans in the [[Chichijima incident]].

97% of the Japanese soldiers occupying Jolo were slaughtered by Moro Muslim Tausug guerillas according to Japanese soldier Fujioka Akiyoshi, who was one of the few who remained alive by the end of the war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Omar |first=Ibrahim S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyplDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22More+than+97+percent+were+lost+on+Jolo+island,+a+death+rate+believed+to+be+hardly+equaled%22&pg=PT101 |title=Diary of a Colonized Native: (Years of Hidden Colonial Slavery) |publisher=Partridge Publishing |year=2018 |isbn=978-1543743272 |location=Singapore |page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Espaldon |first=Ernesto M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IDzAAAAMAAJ&q=%22more+than+97+percent+were+lost+on+jolo%22 |title=With the Bravest: The Untold Story of the Sulu Freedom Fighters of World War II |date=1997 |publisher=Espaldon-Virata Foundation |isbn=9719183314 |location= |page=181 |quote=More than 97 percent were lost on Jolo island, a death rate believed to be hardly equalled anywhere during the entire course of the war. The data were not unexpected, nor were they a surprise. Looking back into the history of the ...}}</ref> Fujioka described the Moros as brutal and recalled how the Moros sliced the livers and gold teeth off Japanaese soldiers who in one month slaughtered 1,000 Japanese after they came to the island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Matthiessen |first=Sven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=llPeCgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Fujioka+described+the+utmost+brutality+of+the+Moros,+who+had+killed%22&pg=PA172 |title=Japanese Pan-Asianism and the Philippines from the Late Nineteenth Century to the End of World War II: Going to the Philippines Is Like Coming Home? |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004305724 |series=Brill's Japanese Studies Library |location= |page=172}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Matthiessen |first=Sven |title=Japanese Pan-Asianism and the Philippines from the Late Nineteenth Century to the End of World War II |publisher=Brill |year=2016 |isbn=9789004305724 |pages=78–183 |chapter=Chapter 4: The Occupation of the Philippines |doi=10.1163/9789004305724_005 |chapter-url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004305724/B9789004305724_005.xml |via=brill.com}}</ref> Fujioka and his fellow Japanese soldiers were overjoyed when they finally reached an American base to surrender to since they knew their only other fate was being butchered by Moro Muslims or starvation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yoshimi |first=Yoshiaki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXvECwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Fujioka+wrote+that+dead+soldiers+had+their+weapons,+clothing,+gold+teeth,+and+raw+livers+plucked+from+them.%22&pg=PA196 |title=Grassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People |date=2015 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231165686 |series=Weatherhead Books on Asia |location= |pages=196, 197, 198 |translator=Ethan Mark}}</ref><ref name="vdoc.pub">{{cite web |title=Grassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People; Translated and Annoted by Ethan Mark &#91;PDF&#93; &#91;2kqjt81hmvs0] |url=https://vdoc.pub/documents/grassroots-fascism-the-war-experience-of-the-japanese-people-translated-and-annoted-by-ethan-mark-2kqjt81hmvs0}}</ref> Injured Japanese were slaughtered by Moros with their [[kris]] daggers as the Moros constantly attacked and charged and butchered Japanese soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6HvAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Jap+arms+were+superior+to+Moro+carbines+and+Krises+despite+their+mortar+Pln.+Japs+had+about+10+LMGs,+a+few+HMGs,+and+100+rifles+and+bayonets.+Every+man+carried+a+grenade+or+two%E2%80%93for+suicide.+Some+Moros+had+butchered+dying+men.%22 |title=Jungleer, Volume 48 |date=1992 |publisher=41st Infantry Division Association |isbn= |location= |page=2 <!--|quote=Bahu past the death-silence of South Mt Daho where the Marine garrison had died. As was his Japanese soldier's right, Gen Suzuki chose to command. It was his final position of honor. 2. Middle Column was 150 men of 363 Inf Bn. Their march might be safer on the south side of the Jolo "mounts" like Mabusing and Datu. 3 Trekking north of that line of Jolo "mounts," the left Column comprised 150 men of 365 Inf Bn and 55 FA Bn. Skirting the north slopes of the Jolo "mounts," they might be most remote from Moro attacks. (Among FA men was Pvt Akiyoshi Fujioka who still remembers the wild fighting. Being against the war, Fujioka had refused his opportunity to become and officers.) Jap arms were superior to Moro carbines and Krises despite their mortar Pln. Japs had about 10 LMGs, a few HMGs, and 100 rifles and bayonets. Every man carried a grenade or two–for suicide. Some Moros had butchered dying men. And on 29 July, 3 die-hard colummns moved out for Mt Bahu– probably with first light. Behind them was the sharp crack of grenades where sick and wounded killed themselves. Airline distances from Tumatangas to Bahu was just 8 miles, but the move lasted too many days. Left Column just 5 days, but Middle and Right columns took 5 days longer. Most of the 500 were killed. The march lasted too long because it could not be a direct march against the Moro multitudes before them. Perhaps the Japs had to retreat at times–or tried round Moro flanks–or marched at night to hide and rest in the daytime. In the Left Column, Fujioka still has hard memories of the march. Moros often tracked them closely and killed men. Jap Mgs helped pile up dead the fanatical rushes, but half those Mgs were lost to Moro charges. Sometimes the Japs used kirikome - an almost suicidal attack with rifle butts and bayonets. After one of these, a man wondered why he lived. Fujioka has poignant memories of fear and hunger and furious battle. One night, the starving Left Column found a field of camotes ( sweet potatoes ). When they were tiredly digging them — bare hands or bayonets - Moros surrounded them and struck down many men before they were beaten off. Next day, the Japs hoped to rest in a narrow valley. Again Moros surrounded them and attacked. Again, there was kirikome - hand to hand fighting, wounds, suffering, and death. Onward fought this Left Column. Skirting northern slopes of Mts Magusing, Agao, Pula, and Datu, they covered mostly in second growth woods. Yet by the time they reached Magusing, they had 70 casualties of their 150 men. After 5 days, 2 Apr. They were first to reach Mt Bahu. On the south side of the “ mounts ” where Left Column marched, the 150 - strong Middle Column of 563 Bn had a harder fight. Three days after starting, they were still just past Mt Tumatangas. Near Mt Kagangan, guerillas mortared them. They broke through the guerillas ' lines, but lost 50 of their 150. Two days later, they reunited with Suzuki's Right Column remnants. But Gen Suzuki was killed in action the day before the 2 columns were merged. His Middle Column had passed through Indanan Village and along the south slopes of Mt Daho. On the whole route, they endured attacks. Suzuki was killed on 1 August. Only 50 of the 150 still lived. On 2 Aug, Middle and Right Columns became one. On 7 Aug. 10 days after leaving Hill 785, the Jap “ army ” reunited on Mt Bahu — about 180 of 500 men who started. On Bahu, death closed down on those 180 diseased, starved, and ever - thirsty men. They lacked strength even to dig perimeter. They lacked a spring for water - just a few drops from a trickle through the grass between rocks. They must catch the slow drops in canteens by day, for they had no lights to get water at night. Moros lurked for them and struck them down. Suddenly a US plane fluttered leaflets among them. "War is over," they said. "If any soldiers live, please come under arms to Matanden, a small hill 2 kilometers NE of Bahu." New CO Maj Temmyo said, "Those are lies. If you believe in them, we'll killed you now!" But Fujioka believe in them, for they said "Come under arms." Without surrender, he knew that they would all die within 10 days—from starvation or Moro krises. So Pvt Fujioka signed to 5 men who slipped away with him. In 30 minutes, the 6 gathered, sad at leaving, but hoping to live. A Sgt who knew English opened a map, and reasoned that the rendezvous was not Matanden but Mt Tanbang. And at Tanbang, these 6 Japanese received their lives and Japan back again — from the black soldiers and white officers of 368 Inf, 92 Div. Back on Mt Bahu, Maj Temmyo's Japs also received back their lives. ... Maj Temmyo never gave official credit to Fujioka's men for saving his life. But Fujioka is alive and well in Tokyo. CREDIT: RR Smith's Return to the Philippines tells how 55 IMB was formed. Artilleryman Fujioka tells about voyage from Luzon, his gun on Jolo, the death - march, and surrender. Dates of his letters are 22 Oct 1986; 9 Jan, 1 Feb, 9 Mar, 30 June 1987; and 20 Jan, 26 Apr 1989. ( Fujioka partly quotes from his hardback book, The Memoir of a Survivor on Jolo written in Japanese script that I cannot read. ) Maj Tokichi Tenmyo's post - war interview with a US ofsicer provides statistics and dates of 3 columns ' fight to reach Mt Bahu, and the final surrender. ( Later name of Bahu is Mt Sinumaan which Fujioka finds in modern Filipino high school texts. ) Our Last ANZAC Day ANZAC is an acronym for the 22.-->}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Poyer |first=Lin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIGUEAAAQBAJ&dq=fujioka+livers+gold+teeth&pg=PA94 |title=War at the Margins: Indigenous Experiences in World War II |date=2022 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824891800 |series=Sustainable History Monograph Pilot |location= |page=94 |quote=Fujioka Akiyoshi's field artillery company succumbed to a Moro surprise attack soon after landing on Jolo in the Philippines in October 1944: “Fujioka wrote that dead soldiers had their weapons, clothing, gold teeth, and raw livers ...}}</ref> Fujioka Akiyoshi (藤岡 明義) wrote a published diary of his war experiences on Jolo called (Haisen no ki ~ gyokusai chi Horo tō no kiroku )(敗戦の記～玉砕地ホロ島の記録 or 敗残の記: 玉砕地ホロ島の記錄) and a private account "Uijin no ki" (初陣の記).<ref>{{cite book |last=Yoshimi |first=Yoshiaki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dn0yBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22is+a+record+written+after+the+war+in+an+American+POW+camp%22&pg=PA312 |title=Grassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese Peopl |date=2015 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231538596 |edition=reprint |series=Weatherhead Books on Asia |location= |page=312 |translator=Ethan Mark |quote=Haisen no ki is a record written after the war in an American POW camp; from Fujioka's second call-up to his arrival at Jolo Island and from his surrender ...}}</ref><ref name="vdoc.pub" /> His diary mentioned the majority of Japanese on Jolo were slaughtered, succumbing to malaria and to Moro attacks. Japanese corpses littered the ground, decaying, infested with maggots and smelling horrendous. Fukao and other Japanese survivors surrendered to the Americans to avoid being slaughtered by the Moro Muslims and after they were in American custody a group of Moros grasping their daggers saw them and wanted to slaughter them. One Moro mentioned how his 12 year old son was eaten by Japanese soldiers at a mountain and he was slaughtering all Japanese soldiers from that area and Fujioka saw he was wearing the wristwatch of Japanese Sergeant Fukao.<ref>{{cite book |last=藤岡 |first=明義 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wXSwAAAAIAAJ&q=%E5%9C%9F%E4%BA%BA |title=敗残の記: 玉砕地ホロ島の記錄 |date=1991 |publisher=中央公論社 |isbn=4122017904 |pages=258, 11, 155, 205, 155 |quote=Page 258 玉砕地ホロ島の記錄 藤岡明義. 選書)。藤岡氏はいわゆる対米協力者ではないが、あえていうなら「を多少加味した Q の」のタイプというところであろうか。ホロ島の場合は圧倒的な火器を有し、制空、制海権を握った米軍の攻撃で三分の一を失い、囲まれつつ ... Results 1-3 of 4 Page 11 この一篇を、ホ島のツマンタンガス並びにシロマンの山々に、今もなお知る人もなく散在し、ジャングルの腐土に埋まっている、六千名の白骨に捧ぐ。昭和五十三年十二月(注原文では、地名、人名等が略字になっている個処があるが、本書では、できる限り正名 ... Page 155 この野郎、処置なしだ、人のところへ来て死にやがって。心臓が弱いと、俺のところが死場所になってしまう」こんな会話を聞いても誰一人振り向きもしなかった。我々の周囲には、死体が点々と転がり、腫れ上り、蛆がわき、悪臭に嘔吐を催した。 Page 205 変転極まりなき人の世とは言え、この死の一つに加わるものと思い込んでいた自分が、転進の際残留した者が、そのままの場所で死んでいるものであった。小あばは膨れ上り、ある者は全身蛆に被われ、ある者は半ば白骨となり、甚だしきは土の中かうじ. Page 155 "「ああ、もう死にやがったな。この野郎、処置なしだ、人のところへ来て死にやがって。心臓が弱いと、俺のところが死場所になってしまう」こんな会話を聞いても誰一人振り向きもしなかった。我々の周囲には、死体が点々と転がり、腫れ上り、蛆がわき、悪臭に嘔吐を催した。" この一篇を、ホ島のツマンタンガス並びにシロマンの山々に、今もなお知る人もなく散在し、ジャングルの腐土に埋まっている、六千名の白骨に捧ぐ。昭和五十三年十二月(注原文では、地名、人名等が略字になっている個処があるが、本書では、できる限り正名 ... 変転極まりなき人の世とは言え、この死の一つに加わるものと思い込んでいた自分が、転進の際残留した者が、そのままの場所で死んでいるものであった。小あばは膨れ上り、ある者は全身蛆に被われ、ある者は半ば白骨となり、甚だしきは土の中かうじ.}}</ref><ref>https://kosho.or.jp/products/search_list.php?search_word=%E8%97%A4%E5%B2%A1+%E6%98%8E%E7%BE%A9 {{bare URL inline|date=April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=早 瀬 Hayase |first1=晋 三 Shinzo |date=March 2021 |title=戦場体験者の戦記を糺す試み Tries to Rewrite War Memoirs as Ex-soldiers |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/wiapstokyu/41/0/41_111/_pdf |journal=『アジア太平洋討究』 |volume= |pages=111–141 |doi= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723042145/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/wiapstokyu/41/0/41_111/_pdf |archive-date=July 23, 2022 |access-date= |number=41}}</ref><ref>https://jstage.jst.go.jp/article/wiapstokyu/41/0/41_111/_pdf {{bare URL inline|date=April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=【長官】ここだけ太平洋戦争中のスレ18【死す】 |url=https://toro.5ch.net/test/read.cgi/army/1307366778/ |website=toro.5ch.net}}</ref>

During slaughter of Madurese settlers in the Indonesian ruled part of Borneo island, Dayaks and [[Malay Indonesians]] consumed livers of Madurese.<ref>{{cite news |last=MACKIE  |first=CYNTHIA |date=March 26, 1999 |title=Cannibalism in Borneo : LETTERS TO THE EDITOR |work=New York Times |location=Jakarta |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/26/opinion/IHT-cannibalism-in-borneo-letters-to-the-editor.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lee  |first=Khoon Choy |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/20195343/The-Fragile-Nation-Indonesia-in-Crisis |title=A fragile nation: the Indonesian crisis |date=1999 |publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.  |isbn=9810240031 |location= |page=394}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 February 2001 |title=Beheading: A Dayak ritual |work=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1186401.stm}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Parry  |first=Richard Lloyd  |date=25 March 1999 |title=Apocalypse now |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/apocalypse-now-1082766.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Parry |first=Richard Lloyd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsf6FxxS8dsC&dq=%22They+were+visible+from+a+few+hundred+yards+away,+standing+on+oil+drums,%22&pg=PT61 |title=In The Time Of Madness |date=2012 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1448130542 |edition=revised |page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mohamad |first=Goenawan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdMhCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22They+were+visible+from+a+few+hundred+yards+away,+standing+on+oil+drums,%22&pg=PA64 |title=Beginning to Remember: The Past in the Indonesian Present |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0295998763 |editor-last=Zurbuchen |editor-first=Mary S. |edition=revised |series=Critical Dialogues in Southeast Asian Studies |page=64}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=June 2015 |title=VIOLENCE AGAINST THE MADURESE IN BORNEO |url=https://factsanddetails.com/indonesia/Minorities_and_Regions/sub6_3c/entry-4004.html |website=Facts and Details }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=June 2015 |title=TRIBAL PEOPLE OF BORNEO: LONGHOUSES, SAGO AND HEADHUNTING |url=https://factsanddetails.com/indonesia/Minorities_and_Regions/sub6_3f/entry-4014.html |website=Facts and Details}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=June 2015 |title=CRIME IN INDONESIA |url=https://factsanddetails.com/indonesia/Government_Military_Crime/sub6_5b/entry-4063.html |website=Facts and Details}}</ref>

A mob of Dutch Orangists [[Johan de Witt#Disaster year and De Witt's Death|ate the organs of their Prime Minister Johan de Witt]] including his liver.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blazeski |first=Goran |date=May 9, 2017  |title=In 1672, an angry mob of Dutchmen butchered and ate their prime minister |url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/05/09/in-1672-an-angry-mob-of-dutchmen-butchered-and-ate-their-prime-minister/ |website=The Vintage News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Byrne |first=Eugene  |date=November 2013 |title=Is it true that an angry mob of Dutchmen killed and ate their own prime minister in 1672? |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/stuart/is-it-true-that-an-angry-mob-of-dutchmen-killed-and-ate-their-own-prime-minister-in-1672/ |website=History Extra}}</ref>

Western Europeans also ate organs and body parts of humans as medicine during the 16th-18th centuries.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bethge |first=Philip |date=2009-01-30 |title=Europe's 'Medicinal Cannibalism' The Healing Power of Death |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/europe-s-medicinal-cannibalism-the-healing-power-of-death-a-604548.html |magazine=Spiegel Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Everts |first=Sarah |date=April 24, 2013 |title=Europe's Hypocritical History of Cannibalism |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/europes-hypocritical-history-of-cannibalism-42642371/ |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gander |first=Kashmira  |date=  24 January 2017 |title=HUMANKIND'S WEIRD RELATIONSHIP WITH CANNIBALISM: FROM EATING PLACENTAS TO BODY PARTS IN MEDICINE |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/humankind-cannabalism-eating-placentas-body-parts-medicine-ingredients-dr-bill-schutt-edited-a7541896.html}}</ref>

Syrian rebel Abu Sakkar during the [[Syrian civil war]] ate an organ of a Syrian government soldier as he declared to a video camera recording him that "We will eat your hearts and your livers you soldiers of Bashar the dog." and said it was either a lung or liver.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wood |first=Paul |date=July 5, 2013 |title=Face-to-face with Abu Sakkar, Syria's 'heart-eating cannibal' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23190533%7C}}</ref>

In the Dongguan area of Xining, Qing soldiers ate the livers and hearts of Muslim rebels during the [[Dungan Revolt (1895–96)]]: "Many a meal of human hearts and livers was partaken of by soldiers, who were anxious to possess the courage their enemies had displayed; and believing that the qualities would be transferred from the eaten heart to the one who devoured it, they lost no opportunity of in this way possessing themselves of the admired reckless daring of the rebels."<ref>{{cite book |last=Rijnhart |first=Susie Carson   |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aWh-NGQSZdkC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=Many+a+meal+of+human+hearts+and+livers+was+partaken+of+by+soldiers,+who+were+anxious+to+possess+the+courage+their+enemies+had+displayed;+and+believing+that+the+qualities+would+be+transferred+from+the+eaten+heart+to+the+one+who+devoured+it,&source=bl&ots=0i_ES5T8nx&sig=ACfU3U2mDeLfwC4Rly72KoRm7FjlLKPtJA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjQotS20sSCAxUBi_0HHfNWCSsQ6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false   |title=With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Borders and of a Journey Into the Far Interior |date=1999 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=8120613023 |edition=reprint |page=92}}</ref>


== Poisoning ==
== Poisoning ==

Revision as of 14:20, 27 November 2023

Slice of pig's liver and onions
Liver
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy561 kJ (134 kcal)
2.5 g
3.7 g
21 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
722%
6500 μg
Riboflavin (B2)
231%
3 mg
Niacin (B3)
94%
15 mg
Vitamin B6
41%
0.7 mg
Folate (B9)
53%
212 μg
Vitamin B12
1083%
26 μg
Vitamin C
26%
23 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Iron
128%
23 mg
Sodium
4%
87 mg
This nutritional data is from 1992 and refers to raw pork liver only. Liver nutrients vary among species.
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[1] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[2]
Mămăligă (cornmeal mush) with chicken liver, cuisine of Moldova
Canned cod liver (see also: cod liver oil)

The liver of mammals, fowl, and fish is commonly eaten as food by humans (see offal). Pork, lamb, veal, beef, chicken, goose, and cod livers are widely available from butchers and supermarkets while stingray and burbot livers are common in some European countries.

Animal livers are rich in iron, copper, the B vitamins and preformed vitamin A. Daily consumption of liver can be harmful; for instance, vitamin A toxicity has been proven to cause medical issues to babies born of pregnant mothers who consumed too much vitamin A.[3] For the same reason, consuming the livers of some species like polar bears or moose is unsafe. A single serving of beef liver exceeds the tolerable upper intake level of vitamin A.[4] 100 g cod liver contains 5 mg of vitamin A and 100 µg of vitamin D.[5] Liver contains large amounts of vitamin B12, and this was one of the factors that led to the discovery of the vitamin.[6]

Etymology

From Middle English liver, from Old English lifer, from Proto-Germanic *librō, from Proto-Indo-European *leyp- "to smear, smudge, stick", from Proto-Indo-European *ley- "to be slimy, be sticky, glide". Cognate with Saterland Frisian Lieuwer "liver", West Frisian lever "liver", Dutch lever "liver", German Leber "liver", Danish , Norwegian and Swedish language lever "liver" the last three from Old Norse lifr "liver".

In the Romance languages, the anatomical word for "liver" (French foie, Italian fegato, Spanish hígado, etc.) derives not from the Latin anatomical term, jecur, but from the culinary term ficatum, literally "stuffed with figs," referring to the livers of geese that had been fattened on figs (foie gras).[7]

Preparation

Liver can be baked, boiled, broiled, fried, stir-fried, or eaten raw (asbeh nayeh or sawda naye in Lebanese cuisine, liver sashimi). In many preparations, pieces of liver are combined with pieces of meat or kidneys, like in the various forms of Middle Eastern mixed grill (e.g. meurav Yerushalmi). Spreads or pâtés made from liver have various names, including liver pâté, pâté de foie gras, chopped liver, liverwurst, liver spread, and Braunschweiger. Other liver sausages include mazzafegato or salsiccia matta. A traditional South African delicacy, namely skilpadjies, is made of minced lamb's liver wrapped in netvet (caul fat), and grilled over an open fire.

Fish liver

Some fish livers are valued as food, especially the stingray liver. It is used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England,[8] as well as the beignets de foie de raie and foie de raie en croute in French cuisine.[9] Cod liver (usually tinned in its oil and served seasoned) is a popular spread for bread or toast in several European countries. In Russia, it is served with potatoes. Cod liver oil is commonly used as a dietary supplement. Liver of burbot is eaten in Finland: it is common for fish vendors and supermarket fish aisles to sell these fish with liver and roe sacks still attached. These parts are often eaten boiled or added to burbot soup. Burbot and its liver are a traditional winter food.[10]

Poisoning

Main article: hypervitaminosis A

The livers of polar bears, walruses, bearded seals, moose, and huskies can contain very high levels of preformed vitamin A,[11] and their consumption has led to vitamin A poisoning (hypervitaminosis A) according to several anecdotal reports. The Inuit will not eat the liver of polar bears or bearded seals. It has been estimated that consumption of 500 grams of polar bear liver would result in a toxic dose for a human.[11] Russian sailor Alexander Konrad, who accompanied explorer Valerian Albanov in a tragic ordeal over the Arctic ice in 1912, wrote about the awful effects of consuming polar bear liver.[12] Also, in 1913, Antarctic explorers on the Far Eastern Party Douglas Mawson and Xavier Mertz were believed to have been poisoned, the latter fatally, from eating husky liver, though this has been contested recently.[13]

Mercury content in some species can also be an issue. In 2012, the Government of Nunavut warned pregnant women to lower their intake of ringed seal liver due to elevated levels of mercury.[14]

The neurotoxin in the liver of the pufferfish (which is consumed in Japanese cuisine as fugu, tightly regulated by Japanese law) contains the highest concentration of the tetrodotoxin, which characterizes the species. Consequently, the liver has been illegal to serve since 1984.

Traditions

Pig liver is a traditional food of immigrant Okinawans in Hawaii. It used to be eaten on New Year's Eve.[15]

References

  1. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  2. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
  3. ^ Rothman, Kenneth (November 23, 1995). "Teratogenicity of High Vitamin A Intake". The New England Journal of Medicine. 21 (333): 1369–1373. doi:10.1056/NEJM199511233332101. PMID 7477116.
  4. ^ "Vitamin A". oregonstate.edu. Linus Pauling Institute. 22 April 2014. Retrieved March 30, 2020.
  5. ^ Nährstoffe und Vitamine in Dorschleber Deutsches Ernährungsberatungs- und -informationsnetz (in German)
  6. ^ Scott, John M.; Molloy, Anne M. (2012). "The discovery of vitamin B(12)". Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 61 (3): 239–245. doi:10.1159/000343114. ISSN 1421-9697. PMID 23183296. S2CID 28688784.
  7. ^ "Foie". Larousse.fr. Retrieved 2019-04-16.
  8. ^ Dods, Margaret (1837). The Cook and Housewife's Manual ... The fifth edition, revised and enlarged, etc (Sixth ed.). Oliver & Boyd, Eninburgh. p. 269. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
  9. ^ Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). Unmentionable Cuisine. University of Virginia Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0813911625. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
  10. ^ "Kalakoulu: Made". 28 February 2011.
  11. ^ a b Rodahl, K.; T. Moore (July 1943). "The vitamin A content and toxicity of bear and seal liver". Biochemical Journal. 37 (2): 166–168. doi:10.1042/bj0370166. ISSN 0264-6021. PMC 1257872. PMID 16747610.
  12. ^ Valerian Albanov. In the Land of White Death. Appendix; A. Konrad's notes.
  13. ^ Carrington-Smith, Denise (5–19 December 2005), "Mawson and Mertz: a re-evaluation of their ill-fated mapping journey during the 1911–1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition", The Medical Journal of Australia, 183 (11/12): 638–641, doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2005.tb00064.x, PMID 16336159, S2CID 8430414
  14. ^ Canada, Environment and Climate Change (2020-07-03). "4. Mercury and Human Health". aem. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
  15. ^ Ethnic Foods of Hawaiʻi page 80
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